Articles about First Ladies' Role
First Ladies' Role
First Ladies and Presidential Campaigns
In the past few presidential election cycles, I have noticed that someone always writes an article about what an asset the candidates’ spouses are, as if this is a new topic of discussion. Yet going back to someone like Dolley Madison, who some said won the election for her husband, candidates’ spouses have been instrumental in elections. Why do you think that the media cover spouses this way? Why is their importance seemingly forgotten and then rediscovered each election cycle? I suppose its to introduce those who never paid attention to the subject - plus there is always something provocative about it. I've always felt that beneath the interest in First Ladies there registers a recognition that in this form of government we call democracy with democratically elected officials, there is something elusive and "illegal" about the degree of power that a spouse with the often more powerful type of "emotional power" can have over a president or potential president - a First Lady or First Gent is the "wild card" of the executive branch of government. People forget about it until an election cycle comes up because elections are often dependent as much on emotional reactions voters have to candidates and spouses have always had a hand in shaping their public images even if entirely divorced from policy. Plus, the media follows what is provocative - and spouses is a topic which hybrids "feature" and "political" news and thus draws from more disparate demographic readership.
I interviewed a few campaign consultants about the forces at work when the public evaluates a potential first lady. Among the themes mentioned were sexism and power. Why do you think that the public still expects potential first ladies to play a traditional role? Yes - there is a degree of sexism in that we often assume a female spouse should be silent on issues, but I think we are also in danger of overstating that - because the influence of male spouses of presidential candidates is also seen as inappropriate. We have four examples thus far to go on and all of them representing different stages of candidacies and both parties - John Zaccaro, husband of Democratic vice presidential candidate Geraldine Ferraro in 1984, Bill Clinton, husband of Democratic presidential primary candidate Hillary Clinton in 2008, Todd Palin husband of Republican Vice Presidential candidate Sarah Palin in 2008 and Marcus Bachman, husband of current Republican presidential primary candidate Michele Bachman. Examine some of the press they have each received. Respectively, it has stirred controversy about financial holdings (Zaccaro), political advice and attacks on rival (Clinton), management of the candidate and control of their media (Palin), and lastly, hypocrisy of the candidate by the spouse's federal business grants (Bachman). I do not think the public still expects First Ladies to play a traditional role but rather to balance the traditional aspects (ceremonial tasks like ribbon-cuttings, personally representing the Administration at memorial and other solemn services, co-hosting state dinners and holiday events, expressing some effort or supporting some cause on behalf of children, wearing clothing of note, accompanying their husband on oversea trips).
What do you think is the primary role of the spouse during a presidential campaign? Serving as the candidate's primary surrogate at appearances and delivering speeches which achieve two goals - one provide a more human and personal perspective on the candidate through private anecdotes and two, to parse some of the candidates' views on issues in the context of how they would affect average Americans. A spouse can also make an impassioned and defensive attack on a rival or the media with less controversy because it is seen as the emotional prerogative of a spouse to do so.
What is the most valuable type of presidential spouse or is there one? What qualities do Americans most desire in a potential First Lady?
"Valuable" in terms of a presidential spouse is relative to the President - are they leaders who seek a wide range of opinions (Carter) or do they tend to resist often views that might create conflict (Eisenhower), do they have a need to unburden the crisis they may be facing (Truman) or need someone to coax them to open up when something seems to be troubling them (Reagan). How well a spouse might respond to this (and it goes the other way as well - for example, Reagan publicly defending Nancy Reagan when she was hurt by criticism, George W. Bush reducing his rhetoric when Laura Bush disapproved) is perhaps the way a President may find a "value" in their spouse and through them, the nation can be affected.
Ultimately I would say that the American people have responded with support and made popular those First Ladies who strike a balance by tapping into both ends of elusive ideals - "dignified" and "unpretentious" for example, were the base of Barbara Bush's enormous public appeal, yet that was equally true of Jackie Kennedy, an entirely different person. So much of it is guided by a sense of the times and one can't fairly judge that until often a period of time has passed and provides perspective.
Generally speaking, I would say that those First Ladies who maintain a public persona that is as genuine to their real personalities as human beings tends to make them less stressful and more happy over the long-term and that does translate in even non-verbal ways by their gestures and deeds, to which the public responds.
Dr. Jill Biden, the Second Lady, still holds a job outside of the political sphere as a professor at Northern Virginia Community College. Gallup polls have indicated that a majority of Americans would not object to a president’s spouse holding a second career. Do you think we will be seeing First Ladies or Gentlemen with separate careers in the near future or will voters continue to gravitate toward the more traditional spousal arrangement? Possibly - however one fact always overlooked by those who claim the role of presidential spouse limits their individual choices as professionals: this is a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity to raise not only American but global attention to an issue or a neglected constituency and to do so with a strong supportive voluntary network as well as the goodwill support in the private sector among partisan supporters of the President.
A professional staff can be hired to help and ultimately, the individual spouse can effect some type of global change, even if to a limited number of people. That is a powerful chance to change lives that few people would pass up. On top of this is the fact that whatever professional relinquishment might be made, it will always be for a relatively limited period of time - eight years at best, four years perhaps and sometimes, tragically, less than that. So I think most people might see it as an opportunity to seize the moment and help others.
During Bill Clinton’s campaign and presidency, his and Hillary’s insistence on her playing a large role in policy-making was not received well by voters. Your work has shown that first ladies were intimately involved in policy and political choices since the days of Abigail Adams. Is the public unaware of previous first ladies’ influence over their husbands or happy to tolerate it as long as it is not made obvious by the first couple? Oddly, yes - a sort of acceptance of discretion or a sort of 'don't ask don't tell' policy about this unaccountable degree of political power. I would say that there has always been a radical gap between the private person and the public persona of a presidential spouse but that while the public claims to want honestly, there seems to be more allure in maintaining an aspect of mystique or covertness and allowing the public to transfer their fantasies about the couple in the White House.
This is based on the fact that presidential spouses - and to a great degree, presidents as well - are first and foremost living symbols and are generally more successful when they express their views on subjects, political or otherwise, by using neutrally abstract words that partisans can grasp onto or that can potentially alienate the public, rather than showing a facility with the specific language of politics and policy. Mrs. Obama, for example, has talked about "healthy eating," and "kids exercising" but almost never refers to the specifics of legislation passed last year which federally funds some of the larger objectives of her "Let's Move!" campaign.
After the backlash against the “two-for-one” Bill and Hillary Clinton arrangement, the very traditional Laura Bush entered the White House. Do you think the Bushes’ traditional family arrangement made a difference in the 2000 campaign? As far as the campaign - only in terms of it be a silent contrast to Hillary Clinton who was running for the U.S. Senate that year - but I would caution against labeling Laura Bush as traditional. She was perhaps perceived as "traditional" in high relief contrast to Clinton who'd been the most overtly political First Lady since Eleanor Roosevelt, but against any other measure Laura Bush broached publicly controversial issues domestically, like stem cell research, gay marriage, and abortion and, on foreign affairs, went deeper yet subtly into issues that pushed gender equality in nations where women are legally treated as second-class citizens, yet used humanitarianism to do so - prompting discussion and screening for breast cancer in Saudi Arabia and rebuilding some educational foundations for women in Afghanistan. She spoke out against human rights violations in Myanmar and overtly influenced the President to sign an environmental protection guarding against deep ocean exploitation. Despite all of this - perhaps because of her regional speaking voice and personally low-key manner and also using softer and less precise words when asked for a statement - the media insisted on labeling her as "traditional."
Image and glamour have always been integral to the Office of the First Lady. Despite the efforts of spouses such as Rosalyn Carter and Hillary Clinton to be more serious, the press still covers the fashion, beauty and decorating choices of potential and serving First Ladies. Decades of feminism have not seemed to alter this tendency, as Michelle Obama is now held up as a style icon. Why is there this fascination with the spouse’s image? Is this an indelible part of the spouse’s public role or is this on its way out? I've only studied the visual appearance of First Ladies only so far as how and if they have had a political consequence. In the case of Jacqueline Kennedy, her visual appearance had a tremendous impact in both fascinating not only women but men around the world and struck what was a fairly universally appealing tone - this enhanced positively the image not only of the Kennedy Administration domestically, but the United States abroad.
It also served to somewhat distract and disarm many of the world leaders who presumed that she was utterly without political guile - and that was not at all the case - but it permitted her to sometimes observe astute political motives which she reported to the President. Domestically, it can also work against an Administration facing crisis like war and depression - certainly the partisan attacks on the cost of clothing worn by Mary Lincoln and Nancy Reagan are examples of that.
Mrs. Obama has worn clothing for state occasions that are colorful and widely judged as appropriate and appealing but she has always sought to give focus on the individual stories of the designers who made them and how they struggled to succeed. Importantly, she has balanced these types of clothing with those purchased from popular stores at reasonable prices and this would seem to mitigate any potential critics of her wearing expensive clothing in a time of severe economic crisis.
Finally, what are your thoughts on the current crop of potential First Ladies? I have seen Michelle Obama described as possessing a quality of “stardust.” Which of the Republican hopefuls’ wives can compete with Mrs. Obama’s charisma? I would rather refrain from answering this since it is a dynamic topic which can change the day after I write something. I would say that having gone through this process four years ago that Ann Romney, who has always plainly expressed her own opinions, is even more comfortable a speaker and campaigner this second time around.
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First Ladies and Politics
Below is a brief overview, even though there is a wealth of information available on this topic. Of course, explore the biographies of the individual First Ladies on our website. Within the section for each woman that is marked "White House Years" you will find many examples of the wide variety of ways that each different First Lady has interpreted what was the right role of her to play.
Starting with our first President, George Washington to our most recent, every chief executive has had a "First Lady." But what does this term mean?
Generally, the term First Lady applies to the wife of the president. However, there have been many additions and exceptions and the term is now considered more inclusive than just being a spouse of a chief executive.
There were four Presidents - Jefferson, Jackson, Van Buren and Arthur - whose wives had died before they became President (Martha Jefferson, Rachel Jackson, Hanna Van Buren and Ellen Arthur).
In those corresponding cases a daughter (Martha Jefferson Randolph), a niece and daughter-in-law (Emily Donelson and Sarah Jackson), another daughter-in-law (Angelica Van Buren) and a sister (Mary Arthur McElroy) served as hostess at White House social events and were First Ladies.
Many people also include those four wives who died before to be categorized as First Ladies - and also, the first wife of Teddy Roosevelt - Alice Lee Roosevelt - even though he was remarried to his second wife Edith by the time he became President.
Also included are the two women who married presidents after their terms in office were over and their first wives had died (Fillmore's wife Caroline and Benjamin Harrison's wife Mary).
Two Presidents came to the White House as bachelors and so in one case a niece (Buchanan's niece Harriet Lane) served as hostess and in another, a sister served (Cleveland's sister Rose Elizabeth Cleveland) - both are considered First Ladies.
Three First Ladies died in the White House - Letitia Tyler, Caroline Harrison and Ellen Wilson - and even though two of their husbands did marry their second wives while they were still President, there was a gap of time when other relatives served as hostess: Priscilla Tyler and Letty Tyler Semple (daughter-in-law and daughter of Tyler), Mary Harrison McKee (daughter of Harrison) and Margaret Wilson (daughter of Wilson).
Finally, there were four president's wives who were not always in strong health and had inconsistent records as the public hostess at ceremonies. Two of these First Ladies - Elizabeth Monroe and Abigail Fillmore - were the primary hostesses that the public knew but they relied on the social help and constant presence of their daughters Eliza Monroe Hay and Abbie Fillmore, respectively. It is debatable whether these daughters can really be considered First Ladies. However, in the case of Peggy Taylor and Eliza Johnson - who only rarely appeared in public, their daughters Betty Taylor Bliss and Martha Johnson Patterson - were the primary hostess who accompanied the President at events like state dinners. In these two instances, both the wives and daughters are accurately considered First Ladies.
The term "First Lady" is not an official title. It is not comparable, for example, with any of the royal designations used in Europe, Asia, Africa or the Middle East. Since there was great affection and familiarity with the wife of George Washington, Martha Washington, from her help to colonial soldiers during the American Revolution, she had been unofficially nicknamed "Lady Washington," largely because of the predominant British-American culture of the people of the land that would become the United States. There is also documentation that her two immediate successors Abigail Adams and Dolley Madison were called "Lady Adams" and "Lady Madison," so the tradition stuck. Dolley Madison's husband had been Secretary of State during the eight years of Jefferson's presidency and helped serve as his hostess when his daughter was not in Washington. She then spent the following eight years as her husband's First Lady, so she had a total of 16 years in the role and as she lived into old age as a widow in Washington, the public held her in great affection. At her funeral in 1848, President Zachary Taylor informally eulogized her as the "first lady of our land." Ten years later, Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper used the title in print for the first time. It was in reference to bachelor President Buchanan's niece Harriet. Since she was not his wife, people were not sure how to characterize her and so they used the expression "first lady of the White House." It slowly came into public use, some western newspapers using it to describe Mary Lincoln. The term was used almost always in reference to the first college-educated First Lady Lucy Hayes during her tenure 1877-1881 and it became permanent. Many women have not liked the term. Jackie Kennedy used to joke that it sounded like the name of a prize saddle horse.
Martha Washington did not live in the White House. Not only was the mansion not yet built but the capital cities were first located in New York and Philadelphia. Still, from the beginning of the American Presidency, there were social events that served political purposes and in reflecting society's designation of women as being responsible for all issues related to home life, the presidents' wives were considered in charge of everything to do with the running of the White House - even though the president's office staff worked in rooms located on the private floor where the family lived. Since the new nation was a democracy, yet needed to command respect from nations that were not, First Ladies tried to act as hostess in a way that would balance her public image as both a commoner and a queen. What she wore, how she looked, how much money she spent, what her family life was like, how she entertained, what food she served, how she relaxed - these all became matters of interest to the country, of both men and women, children and adults. Dolley Madison proved to be the most successful at balancing the image of commoner and queen and she was held up as the ideal role model for well over the first century of the presidency. This role of being in charge of the White House as hostess, manager, decorator, caretaker is now considered the "traditional" role and it is still part of what First Ladies do.
Also from the beginning, people looked to the First Lady as the leading or most famous woman in the country. Many organizations sought to have her support their cause or efforts they were making for charity or to establish institutions to help others. Many First Ladies supported certain types of causes. Dolley Madison, for example, helped an orphanage that cared only for young girls and became a frequent visitor to a local private school that only taught young girls. Harriet Lane took an interest in the art and the needs of Native American Indians. Mary Lincoln became an advocate for an organization that provided support for housing, employment and education of freed African-American slaves. Helen "Nellie" Taft inspected the unhealthy workplace conditions of those who worked for the federal government and used her influence to get a health and safety law passed. Florence Harding strongly supported many organizations that practiced and taught humane treatment of animals. Eleanor Roosevelt took on the needs of many different segments of American society: the unemployed, World War I veterans, West Virginia coal miners, women, African-Americans, refugees of World War II. She not only did this through charity efforts as other First Ladies did but expanded it to include many political actions, some involving federal laws or funding. By doing this she helped to enlarge the public role to become more political. First Ladies since Jackie Kennedy have all focused on specific causes - many of them have involved some form of federal government involvement or lobbying for legal change: Jackie Kennedy and historic preservation, Lady Bird Johnson and environmental protection, Pat Nixon and voluntarism, Betty Ford and expanded equal rights for women, Rosalynn Carter and care for the mentally ill, Nancy Reagan and drug prevention among young people, Barbara Bush and the problems of illiteracy, Hillary Clinton and health care and adoption, Laura Bush and education and libraries.
A natural outgrowth of First Ladies being involved in public causes would seem to be an increase of their political activities. However, as early as the second First Lady Abigail Adams, wives of presidents have been known to offer their opinion and advice on politics, policy, crises and personnel. All have exercised some form of influence whether it was personal such as managing the President's appointment schedules so he would not tax himself (as Nancy Reagan did), assuming some of his work (as Edith Wilson did), serving as a liaison to others for the President (as Mamie Eisenhower did), or working with the President, the Cabinet and other officials to push for legislation they wanted to see enacted (as Rosalynn Carter did). In the end, it is the unique balance of power within each unique presidential marriage that determines what remains a largely covert degree of influence and power of First Ladies.
A First Lady gets no salary, but her living space, travel and personal protection is provided by the government. As the Ethics in Government Act of 1978 ruled, a presidential spouse can not accept gifts that are valued over a certain amount; all gifts and their values must be declared and are considered property of the U.S. government. In the case of gifts given by friends or close associates, she is given the opportunity to purchase the items by paying the government the estimated value.
In the annual budget for its operational funding that the executive branch requests Congress to appropriate, there is now a clause that justifies federal funding to salary the staff of a spouse of a president to allow them to "help the president to carry out the duties of the presidency." Edith Roosevelt was the first First Lady to have a federally-salaried social secretary. Lou Hoover paid from her own funds to hire more secretaries. Eleanor Roosevelt was the first to have a personal secretary as well as a social secretary. Jackie Kennedy hired the first press secretary, Pat Nixon the first appointments secretary, Betty Ford the first speechwriter, Rosalynn Carter the first Chief of Staff and Nancy Reagan the first Special Projects Director. The First Lady's staff is located in the East Wing of the White House.
The East Wing was built during World War II to provide necessary office space for the military assigned to function in the mansion and serve the president. Since military personnel also served as social aides at White House social events, it became logical during the Eisenhower years to have all of the social staff as well as the correspondence, scheduling and other personnel working for a First Lady to all be located in one place where military personnel was also located and since then, the East Wing has housed the First Lady's staff. Rosalynn Carter and Laura Bush maintained working offices there with their staffs while Jackie Kennedy, Lady Bird Johnson, Pat Nixon, Betty Ford, Nancy Reagan and Barbara Bush all worked from offices in the family quarters. Hillary Clinton was the first and only First Lady to also maintain an office in the West Wing, in light of her substantial involvement in many policy-related issues that the president's staff worked on.
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How to Address a First Lady
In addressing a former First Lady directly, such as Barbara Bush, please refer to her directly simply as "Mrs. Bush," and this is true as well of First Ladies during their incumbency. As you know, the role of First Lady is somewhat of a phenomena in the American political system's executive branch, something which evolved by custom and popular demand and press coverage rather than ever being a formal or official part of the executive branch. Federal funding is appropriated for a First Lady's staff based on the condition that the spouse is undertaking unsalaried forms of aid and assistance to the president through her activities. This would be true of a husband of a woman President as well. In the spirit of that popular demand and interest for a woman who happened to be married to a President to be honored in the way that she is, many people will give mention of these women as "First Lady Michelle Obama" or "Former First Lady Laura Bush" in their introductions or opening remarks or in written form, simply as an identification - but it is not required, nor protocol.
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Michelle Obama as First Lady
Michelle Obama is actually considered part of the same generation as Hillary Clinton - the so-called "baby boomers," a generation assessed to have begun in 1945 and ended in 1964, the year of Michelle Obama's birth. In many respects, there are more similarities than not. Michelle Obama is the third consecutive First Lady to have earned a graduate degree (Hillary Clinton has a law degree, Laura Bush a Masters of Library Science, Michelle Obama in law), and very much part of that first full generation that benefitted from some of the women's movement's efforts to gain both educational and employment equity between the genders. At the time she became First Lady, Hillary Clinton also stated that her first order of business was to make certain her daughter Chelsea, who was 12 years old (two years older than Malia Obama) at the time she moved into the White House, had been successfully transitioned to a new school with new friends. On the advice of former First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis, Hillary Clinton also sought to make certan that the many well-meaning maids, butlers, Secret Service agents and other adults did not help their daughter too often. As Jackie Kennedy had learned, it was easy for a child in the White House to forego learning how to take care of themselves, defend themselves and do the regular sorts of things that a developing young adult needed to.
Even though she will be the first African-American First Lady, Michelle Obama will represent all of the people of the United States, both at home and abroad. The First Lady is a living symbol, a representative of the United States and as such, they tend to walk a middle ground. One can think of them almost like a "mother of the nation." The role actually
derived from the notions of a queen or the wives of world rulers at the time of the first American President, George Washington, in 1789. While the American First Lady's role still includes the so-called "traditional" aspects of the role, ceremonial appearances, presiding over state dinners and entertainments, by the early 20th century, many of them began to take an active interest in social issues of their era. While certainly there may be particular organizations she will work with or support that will seek to aid African-Americans, it is certain she will not do so exclusively. Actually, there have been many European-descended First Ladies who also supported various African-American organizations (such as Eleanor Roosevelt and the National Association of Colored People), or advocated issues of equality (as did Lady Bird Johnson did during her 1964 campaign tour of the American South where she spoke of the advances to both white and black Americans that her husband's signing of the 1964 Civil Rights Act). There have also been other times in presidential history when there have been First Ladies that seemed to be different from the majority: Ida McKinley, for example, acknowledged her disability of mobility problems and had to remain seated while greeting guests and sometimes use a wheelchair. Jacqueline Kennedy was the only Roman Catholic. Jane Pierce was in deep mourning and it was widely known that she suffered from severe depression. Florence Harding was a professional businesswoman. Eleanor Roosevelt held down two professional jobs (teacher and then co-director of a government agency) as well as worked as a professional journalist (she had a daily column and weekly radio show). Frances Cleveland was only a 21 year old recent college graduate when she married the bachelor President in the White House. In each instance, the press and public became accustomed to the novelty of these rare elements of their personal lives, and it eventually wore off.
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Press Briefings and First Ladies
A recent press briefing by Laura Bush in the official press room of the West Wing of the White House sparked a question about First Ladies' roles in official capacities.
To my knowledge, which is fairly institutional on this subject, I know of no other First Lady who held a brief news conference in the 'briefing room' (the press room in the West Wing) on international affairs or anything for that matter. Hillary Clinton did hold briefings for professionals in health care and other policy-related issues, as well as with some press coverage if they were 'events' in the Indian Treaty Room in the Old Executive Office Building - and I believe Betty Ford held one event there on how women who ran household budgets could take measures to help curb inflation at a time of President Ford's "Whip Inflation Now" publicity effort. But no other to my knowledge held a briefing in the press room.
I have been observing and commenting to the media for at least four years now that Laura Bush, however soft-spoken her voice and low-key her manner, has voiced her views on substantive issues that have often proved controversial, especially on international issues - particularly those related to women and education. She also broke another media-related precedent in the first term, becoming the only First Lady to date who substituted for a President during the weekly Saturday presidential radio broadcast.
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The Role of First Lady and Origin of the Title "First Lady"
Starting with our first President, George Washington to our most recent, every chief executive has had a "First Lady." But what does this term mean?
Generally, the term First Lady applies to the wife of the president. However, there have been many additions and exceptions and the term is now considered more inclusive than just being a spouse of a chief executive.
There were four Presidents - Jefferson, Jackson, Van Buren and Arthur - whose wives had died before they became President (Martha Jefferson, Rachel Jackson, Hanna Van Buren and Ellen Arthur).
In those corresponding cases a daughter (Martha Jefferson Randolph), a niece and daughter-in-law (Emily Donelson and Sarah Jackson), another daughter-in-law (Angelica Van Buren) and a sister (Mary Arthur McElroy) served as hostess at White House social events and were First Ladies.
Many people also include those four wives who died before to be categorized as First Ladies - and also, the first wife of Teddy Roosevelt - Alice Lee Roosevelt - even though he was remarried to his second wife Edith by the time he became President.
Also included are the two women who married presidents after their terms in office were over and their first wives had died (Fillmore's wife Caroline and Benjamin Harrison's wife Mary).
Two Presidents came to the White House as bachelors and so in one case a niece (Buchanan's niece Harriet Lane) served as hostess and in another, a sister served (Cleveland's sister Rose Elizabeth Cleveland) - both are considered First Ladies.
Three First Ladies died in the White House - Letitia Tyler, Caroline Harrison and Ellen Wilson - and even though two of their husbands did marry their second wives while they were still President, there was a gap of time when other relatives served as hostess: Priscilla Tyler and Letty Tyler Semple (daughter-in-law and daughter of Tyler), Mary Harrison McKee (daughter of Harrison) and Margaret Wilson (daughter of Wilson).
Finally, there were four president's wives who were not always in strong health and had inconsistent records as the public hostess at ceremonies. Two of these First Ladies - Elizabeth Monroe and Abigail Fillmore - were the primary hostesses that the public knew but they relied on the social help and constant presence of their daughters Eliza Monroe Hay and Abbie Fillmore, respectively. It is debatable whether these daughters can really be considered First Ladies. However, in the case of Peggy Taylor and Eliza Johnson - who only rarely appeared in public, their daughters Betty Taylor Bliss and Martha Johnson Patterson - were the primary hostess who accompanied the President at events like state dinners. In these two instances, both the wives and daughters are accurately considered First Ladies.
The term "First Lady" is not an official title. It is not comparable, for example, with any of the royal designations used in Europe, Asia, Africa or the Middle East. Since there was great affection and familiarity with the wife of George Washington, Martha Washington, from her help to colonial soldiers during the American Revolution, she had been unofficially nicknamed "Lady Washington," largely because of the predominant British-American culture of the people of the land that would become the United States. There is also documentation that her two immediate successors Abigail Adams and Dolley Madison were called "Lady Adams" and "Lady Madison," so the tradition stuck. Dolley Madison's husband had been Secretary of State during the eight years of Jefferson's presidency and helped serve as his hostess when his daughter was not in Washington. She then spent the following eight years as her husband's First Lady, so she had a total of 16 years in the role and as she lived into old age as a widow in Washington, the public held her in great affection. At her funeral in 1848, President Zachary Taylor informally eulogized her as the "first lady of our land." Ten years later, Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper used the title in print for the first time. It was in reference to bachelor President Buchanan's niece Harriet. Since she was not his wife, people were not sure how to characterize her and so they used the expression "first lady of the White House." It slowly came into public use, some western newspapers using it to describe Mary Lincoln. The term was used almost always in reference to the first college-educated First Lady Lucy Hayes during her tenure 1877-1881 and it became permanent. Many women have not liked the term. Jackie Kennedy used to joke that it sounded like the name of a prize saddle horse.
Martha Washington did not live in the White House. Not only was the mansion not yet built but the capital cities were first located in New York and Philadelphia. Still, from the beginning of the American Presidency, there were social events that served political purposes and in reflecting society's designation of women as being responsible for all issues related to home life, the presidents' wives were considered in charge of everything to do with the running of the White House - even though the president's office staff worked in rooms located on the private floor where the family lived. Since the new nation was a democracy, yet needed to command respect from nations that were not, First Ladies tried to act as hostess in a way that would balance her public image as both a commoner and a queen. What she wore, how she looked, how much money she spent, what her family life was like, how she entertained, what food she served, how she relaxed - these all became matters of interest to the country, of both men and women, children and adults. Dolley Madison proved to be the most successful at balancing the image of commoner and queen and she was held up as the ideal role model for well over the first century of the presidency. This role of being in charge of the White House as hostess, manager, decorator, caretaker is now considered the "traditional" role and it is still part of what First Ladies do.
Also from the beginning, people looked to the First Lady as the leading or most famous woman in the country. Many organizations sought to have her support their cause or efforts they were making for charity or to establish institutions to help others. Many First Ladies supported certain types of causes. Dolley Madison, for example, helped an orphanage that cared only for young girls and became a frequent visitor to a local private school that only taught young girls. Harriet Lane took an interest in the art and the needs of Native American Indians. Mary Lincoln became an advocate for an organization that provided support for housing, employment and education of freed African-American slaves. Helen "Nellie" Taft inspected the unhealthy workplace conditions of those who worked for the federal government and used her influence to get a health and safety law passed. Florence Harding strongly supported many organizations that practiced and taught humane treatment of animals. Eleanor Roosevelt took on the needs of many different segments of American society: the unemployed, World War I veterans, West Virginia coal miners, women, African-Americans, refugees of World War II. She not only did this through charity efforts as other First Ladies did but expanded it to include many political actions, some involving federal laws or funding. By doing this she helped to enlarge the public role to become more political. First Ladies since Jackie Kennedy have all focused on specific causes - many of them have involved some form of federal government involvement or lobbying for legal change: Jackie Kennedy and historic preservation, Lady Bird Johnson and environmental protection, Pat Nixon and voluntarism, Betty Ford and expanded equal rights for women, Rosalynn Carter and care for the mentally ill, Nancy Reagan and drug prevention among young people, Barbara Bush and the problems of illiteracy, Hillary Clinton and health care and adoption, Laura Bush and education and libraries.
A natural outgrowth of First Ladies being involved in public causes would seem to be an increase of their political activities. However, as early as the second First Lady Abigail Adams, wives of presidents have been known to offer their opinion and advice on politics, policy, crises and personnel. All have exercised some form of influence whether it was personal such as managing the President's appointment schedules so he would not tax himself (as Nancy Reagan did), assuming some of his work (as Edith Wilson did), serving as a liaison to others for the President (as Mamie Eisenhower did), or working with the President, the Cabinet and other officials to push for legislation they wanted to see enacted (as Rosalynn Carter did). In the end, it is the unique balance of power within each unique presidential marriage that determines what remains a largely covert degree of influence and power of First Ladies.
A First Lady gets no salary, but her living space, travel and personal protection is provided by the government. As the Ethics in Government Act of 1978 ruled, a presidential spouse can not accept gifts that are valued over a certain amount; all gifts and their values must be declared and are considered property of the U.S. government. In the case of gifts given by friends or close associates, she is given the opportunity to purchase the items by paying the government the estimated value.
In the annual budget for its operational funding that the executive branch requests Congress to appropriate, there is now a clause that justifies federal funding to salary the staff of a spouse of a president to allow them to "help the president to carry out the duties of the presidency." Edith Roosevelt was the first First Lady to have a federally-salaried social secretary. Lou Hoover paid from her own funds to hire more secretaries. Eleanor Roosevelt was the first to have a personal secretary as well as a social secretary. Jackie Kennedy hired the first press secretary, Pat Nixon the first appointments secretary, Betty Ford the first speechwriter, Rosalynn Carter the first Chief of Staff and Nancy Reagan the first Special Projects Director. The First Lady's staff is located in the East Wing of the White House.
The East Wing was built during World War II to provide necessary office space for the military assigned to function in the mansion and serve the president. Since military personnel also served as social aides at White House social events, it became logical during the Eisenhower years to have all of the social staff as well as the correspondence, scheduling and other personnel working for a First Lady to all be located in one place where military personnel was also located and since then, the East Wing has housed the First Lady's staff. Rosalynn Carter and Laura Bush maintained working offices there with their staffs while Jackie Kennedy, Lady Bird Johnson, Pat Nixon, Betty Ford, Nancy Reagan and Barbara Bush all worked from offices in the family quarters. Hillary Clinton was the first and only First Lady to also maintain an office in the West Wing, in light of her substantial involvement in many policy-related issues that the president's staff worked on.
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Transitions: A brief history tours of the White House given by the presiding First Lady to the First Lady-elect
Incumbent First Lady Nancy Reagan gave Barbara Bush a tour of the private quarters of the White House following the presidential election of the latter's husband in November of 1988.
Here are excerpts from my books concerning the tours for 1908, 1920, 1932, 1952 and 1960....
From Nellie Taft: The Unconventional First Lady of the Ragtime Era (1995), p. 221
"December 11 [1908] was the first time that an outgoing First Lady gave a tour of the mansion to her successor. Nellie [Taft] overcompensated for her nervousness by acting high-handed. After lunch as the two walked into the Green Room, Nellie quipped in a whisper loud enough for Edith [Roosevelt] to hear, 'I would have put that table over there.'"
From Florence Harding: The First Lady, the Jazz Age and the Death of America's Most Scandalous President (1998), p. 241
"Shoulders squared, veil over face, and pince-nez over the veil, the Duchess [as Florence Harding was nicknamed by her husband and friends] was driven to the White House and escorted into the Red Room, where the aging vixen Edith Wilson condescendingly noted Florence's rouged cheeks and bobbing blue feathered hat.....'Her manner,' wrote Edith, 'was so effusive, so voluble, that after a half-hour over the tea cups I could hardly stem the torrent of words...'...Edith then said she would not guide her through the mansion but leave that to the housekeeper Elizabeth Jaffray....who said that 'an unpleasant scene had just taken place" and that Edith, 'flushed in the face as I had never seen it before...without a word of goodbye, turned and left the room.' ....Jaffray guided guided Florence, who asked that separate twin beds be placed for her and Warren in the Wilson bedroom. Two hours later Edith returned from an appointment and 'heard a voice far down the the kitchen. It was Mrs. Harding talking to the cook. She remained until after eight o'clock.' Florence told reporters it was 'a very pleasant visit.'"
From First Ladies, volume 1, p. 453
"Mrs. Roosevelt had refused her [Lou Hoover's] kind offer of a government car and military aide to escort her to the White House from the Mayflower Hotel...Eleanor [Roosevelt] walked down Connecticut Avenue to the White House with no guard or escort. After touring the public rooms and living quarters, Eleanor asked Lou to take her into the kitchen. As they neared it, Lou stopped, and pulled herself up. In four years, she'd never entered that territory. 'I;m sorry,' she explained to Eleanor, 'but the housekeeper will have to show you the kitchens. I never go into the kitchens.'"
From First Ladies, volume 1, p. 549
"On December 1 [1952] Bess [Truman] gave Mamie [Eisenhower] the traditional tour...Mrs. Truman's only offhand comment was a warning to the house staff that they would be seeing a 'lot of pink."
From First Ladies, volume 1, p. 598
"When Mamie learned that Jackie Kennedy's doctor had requested that his patient be taken through the house in a wheelchair because of her post-surgery condition, Mamie frowned, 'Oh, dear, I wanted to take her around alone.' She decided that a wheelchair should be placed behind a door and made ready - if Mrs. Kennedy requested it. On December 9 [1960], the day of the tour, [Chief Usher] J.B. West escorted a shy Jackie up to Mamie, standing in the middle of the hallway, 'very much in command.' Mrs. Kennedy took a deep breath. He announced her. Mrs. Eisenhower did not come forward. West took Mrs. Kennedy up to Mamie, 'aware that neither lady had looked forward to this meeting.' In what he called her 'gracious meet-the-visitor pose' Mamie asked about the baby [newborn John K. Kennedy, Jr.]. Jackie didn't mention the wheelchair, admitting later, 'I was too scared of Mrs. Eisenhower.' The tour began, Jackie wearily tramping through...comparing Mamie's 'Pink House' to the Lubianka, the famous Russian prison....The next morning after her tour, Mamie was in bed, finishing breakfast...tersely expressed herself, arching a disapproving eyebrow. 'She's planning to redo every room in this house...You've got quite a project ahed of you. There are certainly going to be some changes made around here!"
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